The embodied carbon emissions of lettuce production in vertical farming, greenhouse horticulture, and open-field farming in the Netherlands

To understand the contribution of vertical farms to future sustainable food production, beyond its efficient land-use and high yields, this paper evaluates the current carbon footprint of lettuce produced in an operational vertical farm in comparison to conventional open-field farming and both soil-based and hydroponic greenhouse cultivation in the Netherlands. The assessment includes the greenhouse gas emissions of the life cycle of the farm and the crop, from cradle-to-grave.