Functional traits and ecosystem services across urban greenery, urban forests, and forests in nature-based solutions: A review

Understanding how plant functional traits influence ecosystem functioning is essential for implementing effective nature-based solutions in both urban and forest contexts. In this study, 80 papers (12.1% of the initially identified literature) were systematically reviewed using the SPIDER selection method to examine how traits mediate resilience, adaptation, and ecosystem service delivery across urban greenery, urban forests, and forests. The analysis revealed that functional traits mediate the relationship between biodiversity and ecosystem service provision, and that their expression is strongly context-dependent, shaped by management intensity, species selection, and environmental stressors. The discussion highlights the importance of trait-based approaches for restoration planning, urban forestry, and ecosystem management, underscoring the need for standardized measurements, mechanistic models, and long-term monitoring to optimize ecosystem service delivery and strengthen resilience.