Socioeconomic and geographical disparities in heat-related mortality in Italy: a nationwide small-area study

Background: Spatial variation in heat-related mortality remains poorly understood, particularly at fine geographical scales. We conducted a nationwide small-area study to examine the association between spatial variation in heatrelated mortality and environmental, demographic, health, and socio-economic factors. Methods We obtained daily all-cause mortality data for people aged ≥65 years during the summers of 2011–2023 and linked them with municipality-level daily mean temperature estimates from the ERA5-Land reanalysis dataset. We applied a two-stage Bayesian hierarchical model to estimate small-area heat-related mortality and assess the contribution of community characteristics to spatial variability. Findings: Heat-related mortality showed marked geographical differences, with the highest rates in southern and southeastern Italy. Across municipalities, the relative risk at the 90th temperature percentile, relative to the minimum mortality temperature, ranged from 1.06 to 1.33. The heat-attributable fraction exceeded 6% in several southern municipalities, while excess mortality surpassed 80 deaths per 10,000 inhabitants in parts of the Po Valley, Tuscany, Apulia, and Sicily. National heat-attributable mortality peaked in 2022, with an estimated 17,828 deaths (95% credible intervals: 17,339, 18,285) among older adults. Municipalities with higher average temperatures, less green space, higher obesity prevalence, and more residents aged ≥ 85 years had higher heatrelated mortality. Educational attainment and employment were among the strongest modifiers of spatial variation. Interpretation: Our findings highlight substantial small-area differences in heat-related mortality across Italy and identify socio-economic deprivation as a key determinant of vulnerability. Heat is likely to disproportionately affect disadvantaged communities, reinforcing the need for adaptation strategies addressing social inequality.