Evaluating the palaeoecological significance of cave hyaena coprolites: palynological evidence from the Upper Pleistocene of Biśnik Cave (Poland)

Cave sediments often preserve discontinuous and taphonomically biased pollen records, complicating the reconstruction of local palaeoenvironments and ecosystem dynamics. Carnivore coprolites represent a potentially valuable, yet still underexplored, palaeoecological archive whose reliability depends on understanding the processes governing pollen incorporation and preservation. Here, we investigate the palaeoecological significance of pollen assemblages preserved in Crocuta crocuta spelaea coprolites recovered from MIS 5b–3 deposits at Biśnik Cave (Poland), one of the best-documented Middle–Upper Pleistocene cave sequences in Central Europe. By integrating palynological, vertebrate, stratigraphic, and archaeological evidence, we evaluate the reliability and environmental representativeness of the coprolite pollen signal and reconstruct local habitat conditions surrounding the cave. Although each coprolite records only a temporally discrete ecological signal, the assemblages collectively reveal marked differences in local habitat composition throughout MIS 5b–3. The landscape surrounding Biśnik Cave was generally dominated by open vegetation, interrupted by phases of increased moisture that promoted the expansion of shrub communities (Betula nana-type) and localised woodland patches. These habitat shifts are broadly consistent with changes in the associated vertebrate assemblages and define the ecological framework within which recurrent cave hyaena activity and Neanderthal occupations took place. Our results demonstrate that, despite their discontinuous nature and complex taphonomic history, cave hyaena coprolites preserve internally coherent ecological signals that contribute to the reconstruction of local habitat conditions and have the potential to complement conventional sedimentary pollen archives, particularly in cave settings where continuous sedimentary pollen records are unavailable or poorly preserved.