Earth and rock as constituent elements of 16th century fortifications

In this contribution, earth and rock are understood as materials that are concealed and skilfully integrated into the definition of military architecture, to the point of becoming a predominant feature. These materials met particularly pressing needs in the case of 16th-century military architecture. They satisfied new defence requirements in relation to the evolution of firearms. They met criteria of cost-effectiveness, as they were available in the same contexts as the construction itself; this aspect was particularly relevant considering the importance that states attached to modernising defensive structures considered obsolete, or creating new ones. The very nature and method of use of earth and rock was also a factor that significantly accelerated the time required to prepare fortifications. The contribution examines fortifications that integrated masonry with extensive volumes of earth. In addition to cases where the judicious placement of the fortress allowed the use of – through excavations, passages, setups – enormous volumes of rock, later faced with curtain walls. A significant aspect of military architecture also concerns the relationship between the construction site, understood as the actual operational environment, and treatises. In fact, it can be observed that the use of earth in conjunction with masonry work is a construction site practice that was pursued even before it was advocated by planimetric diagrams and descriptions in 16th-century treatises.