Analysis of driver reaction to a pedestrian who crosses the road outside designated crosswalks

Pedestrians who cross the road outside designated crosswalks represent a critical safety issue in urban environments, as they are often unexpected. Understanding how drivers perceive and respond to such events is essential for improving pedestrian safety and developing effective preventive measures. This study investigates driver perception and reaction processes in safety-critical scenarios involving the sudden appearance of a pedestrian crossing the roadway outside crosswalks, with particular attention to visual detection, reaction time, and evasive behaviour. For this study a controlled experiment was conducted using a driving simulator integrated with an eye-tracking system, allowing the joint collection of vehicle kinematic data and gaze behaviour. Two urban scenarios were designed, differing in the distance at which the pedestrian appeared: one providing sufficient stopping distance fora vehicle approaching at 50 km/h and thus placing 50 km/h speed limits, and a second scenario with a shorter appearance distance consistent with a stopping distance calculated with a speed of 30 km/h, with a 30 km/h speed limit. Driver gaze behaviour, perception time, reaction time, total perception–reaction time, and avoidance strategies were analysed under these conditions. The results confirm that crossings outside crosswalks represent a highly critical scenario, characterised by delayed visual detection, increased variability in driver responses, and a higher likelihood of delayed or ineffective evasive actions. Scenarios characterised by 50km/h speed limits produced longer and more variable reaction times, whereas tighter spatiotemporal constraints (30 km/h scenario) resulted in faster and more consistent responses. Overall, the study highlights the need for interventions aimed at improving early pedestrian detection and driver awareness, supporting the potential role of infrastructural measures and advanced driver assistance systems in mitigating safety risks in non-designated crossing environments.