Reproducing Hierarchies. Racism from Colonialism to Neoliberalism

In this essay, I adopt the perspectives of Michel Wieviorka and Michel Foucault, which consider racism to be a feature of modern societies, and I try to show how it persists in contemporary ones, having a structural character. I then examine in more detail some of the main manifestations of structural racism in the United States, Brazil and Europe. Moreover, following Achille Mbembe’s arguments, I discuss how racism maintained the domination of certain social groups in the transition from the colonial to the post-colonial era and how it is necessary today to build up a regime of inequality both globally and within (neo)liberal-democracies. Finally, I argue that, within this framework, anti-racist discourse, especially that promoted by supranational and international institutions, often ends up having a limited impact. On the other hand, affirmative actions promoted by discriminated groups are frequently insufficient. To be effective, both antiracist and affirmative policies must then be linked to a strong revival of 20thcentury “(inter)national constitutionalism”, which focuses on substantial equality and the equal recognition of differences.